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Glossary

Psychology

Psychology glossary.

Psychology is the science of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feelings and thought. It is an academic discipline of immense scope. Psychologists also seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, linking the discipline to neuroscience. As a social science, psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups.

Topics Psychology Biology Medicine

Terms listing

A

Ability Model Abnormal Psychology Absolute refractory period Absolute threshold Absolute Threshold of a Sensation Access Accommodation Acetylcholine Achievement motive Achievement tests Acronym Acrostic Action Potential Activation-synthesis theory Activation-Synthesis Theory of Dreaming Active Imagination Active listening Adaptation Adaptations Adaptive behaviors Addiction Additive strategy Adherence Adolescence Adoption studies Adoption Study Adrenal cortex Adrenal Glands Adrenal medulla Adrenaline Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)Affect Affective Forecasting Afferent nerves Afterimage Age of viability Agonist Agonists Agoraphobia Agreeableness Alcohol Algorithm All-or-none law Alpha waves Alternate-forms reliability Altruism Alzheimer’s Disease Ambiguous language Ambivalent Attachment Style Ambivalent Sexism Amnesia Amniotic Sac Amphetamine Amplitude Amygdala Anchoring Anima Animism Animus Anonymity Anorexia nervosa Antagonists Anterograde Amnesia Antianxiety Medications Antidepressant Medications Antipsychotic Drugs (Neuroleptics)Antisocial personality disorder Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)Anxiety Anxiety Disorders APA Ethical Code Aphasia Applied Research Appraisal Appreciation Effects Approach-approach conflict Approach-avoidance conflict Aptitude Tests Archetypes Arithmetic Mean (M)Arousal Arousal Cost–Reward Model Assimilation Association Areas Associative Shifting At-Risk Research Atherosclerosis Attachment Attachment styles Attention Attitudes Attraction Attributions Atypical antipsychotic drugs Audience Design Auditory Cortex Auditory nerve Authoethnography Authoritarian Parents Authoritative Parents Autobiographical Memory Automatic Automatic Behavior Automatic Empathy Automatic thoughts Autonomic nervous system Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)Autonomy Availability Availability heuristic Aversion Therapy Aversive Racism Avoidance-avoidance conflict Avoidance Learning Avoidant Attachment Style Avoidant personality disorder Axon

B

Babbling Balance Barbiturates Basal metabolic rate Basic-Level Category Basic Research Basilar membrane Behavior genetics Behavior therapies Behavioral Genetics Behavioral Medicine Behaviour Therapy Behaviourism Belief perseverance Belmont Report Beneficence Benevolent Sexism Benzodiazepines Beta Effect Beta waves Bias Bias (i.e., test bias)Biases Big Five Bilingualism Binocular cues Binocular Depth Cues Bio-Psycho-Social Model of Illness Biofeedback Biological Drive Biological Psychology Biological Rhythms Biomedical Approach to Reducing Disorders Biomedical Model of Health Biomedical Therapies Biopsychosocial Model of Health Biopsychosocial model of illness Bipolar Disorder Bipolar disorders Black Box Model Blatant Biases Blind Spot Blind to Condition Blind to the Research Hypothesis Blindsight Blocking Blood Alcohol Content (BAC)Blood-brain barrier Borderline personality disorder Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)Bounded Awareness Bounded Ethicality Bounded Rationality Bounded Self-Interest Bounded Willpower Brain Brain Lateralization Brain Stem Brain waves Broca’s Area Bruxism Bulimia nervosa Bystander effect Bystander Intervention

C

Caffeine Cannon-Bard theory Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion Cartesian Catastrophe Case Studies Case study Castration anxiety Cataplexy Catatonic type Catecholamines Categories Categorize Category Category Prototype Catharsis Central Executive Central nervous system Central Nervous System (CNS)Central Tendency Centration Cerebellum Cerebral Cortex Cerebrospinal fluid Cerebrum Challenge Chameleon Effect Character Strengths Childhood Chromosomes Chronic Disease Chunking Cilia Cingulotomy Circadian Rhythm Circadian rhythms Classical conditioning Classical Conditioning Effects Client- or Person-Centred Therapy Client-centered therapy Clock Time Closure Cocaine Cochlea Cochlear Implant Cocktail Party Phenomenon Codeine Cognition Cognitive Accessibility Cognitive Appraisal Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)Cognitive Biases Cognitive development Cognitive dissonance Cognitive Psychology Cognitive schema Cognitive therapies Cognitive Therapy Cohort Effects Collective unconscious Collectivism Color Blindness Commitment Common-Causal Variable Common Ground Community Learning Community mental health movement Community Mental Health Services Comorbidity Compassionate love Compensation Competence Complexes Complexity Componential intelligence Compulsions Computerized tomography (CT)Concept Conception Conceptual Replication Conceptual Variables Concordance rate Concrete Operational Stage Conditioned Compensatory Response Conditioned response Conditioned Response (CR)Conditioned stimulus Conditioned Stimulus (CS)Cones Confabulation Confederate Confidentiality Confirmation Bias Conflict Conformity Confounding Variables Congruence Conscientiousness Conscious Consciousness Consent Form Conservation Consolidation Construct Validity Contact comfort Contact hypothesis Content validity Context Context-Dependent Learning Contextual Information Contextual intelligence Continual-Activation Theory Continuity Continuous Distributions Continuous reinforcement Contralateral Control Control Control group Controlled Behavior Convergence Convergent Thinking Conversion disorder Coping Cornea Corpus Callosum Correlation coefficient Correlational Research Correlational research method Corticosteroids Cortisol Cost–Benefit Analysis Counterconditioning Counterfactual Thinking Couples Therapy Creativity Criterion validity Critical Period Cross-Cultural Psychology Cross-Cultural Studies Cross-Sectional Research Design Crystallized intelligence Cue Overload Principle Cues Cultural Differences Cultural Display Rules Cultural Intelligence Cultural Psychology Cultural Relativism Cultural Scripts Cultural Similarities Culture Culture-bound disorders Culture of Honor Curvilinear Relationship

D

Daily Hassles Dark adaptation Data Debriefing Decay Decay theory Decentration Deception Decibel Decision-making Declaration of Helsinki Declarative Memory Deductive reasoning Deep Structure of an Idea Defense mechanisms Deficiency Needs Deindividuation Deinstitutionalization Deliberative Phase Delta waves Delusions Dementia Dendrite Dendritic trees Denial Dependence Dependent Variable Depressants Depression Depth Cues Depth Perception Derailment Descriptive Norms Descriptive Research Descriptive Statistics Development Developmental Intergroup Theory Developmental norms Diabetes Diagnosis Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT)Dialectical reasoning Dichotic Listening Dichromat Difference threshold Difference Threshold (or Just Noticeable Difference [JND])Diffusion of responsibility Direct Effects of Social Support Directional Goals Discrimination Discriminative Stimulus Disease model of addiction Disorganized Attachment Style Disorganized type Dispersion Displacement Display rules Dissociation Dissociative amnesia Dissociative Disorder Dissociative disorders Dissociative Fugue Dissociative Identity Disorder Dissonance theory Distinctiveness Distractor Task Distributed practice Distribution Divergent Thinking Divided Attention DNA Methylation DNA Methyltransferases (DNMTs)Dopamine Double-blind Double-Blind Experiment Down Syndrome Dream Analysis Dreams Drive reduction theories of motivation Drive State Drug therapy Dualism Durability Bias Dysthymia Dysthymic disorder

E

Early Adulthood Eating disorders Echoic Memory Eclectic Therapy EEG (Electroencephalography)Effect Size Efferent nerves Ego Ego-Depletion Egocentric Egocentrism Egoism Eidetic Imagery (or Photographic Memory)Elaboration Elaboration likelihood model Elaborative Encoding Electric stimulation of the brain Electrocardiograph (EKG)Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)Electroencephalograph (EEG)Electroencephalography (EEG)Electromagnetic Energy Electromyograph (EMG)Electrooculograph (EOG)Elimination by aspects Embodied Embryo Embryonic stage Emotion Emotion-Focused Coping Emotion Regulation Emotion work Emotional intelligence Emotional Intelligence (EI)Empathic Concern Empathy–Altruism Model Empirical Empirical Methods Empirically validated treatments Empty nest Encoding Encoding Specificity Principle Enculturation Endocrine System Endogenous biological rhythms Endorphins Engrams Epigenetics Epigenome Episodic Memory Error Management Theory (EMT)Escape Learning Estrogen Ethical Review Board (ERB)Ethics Ethnocentric Bias Ethnographic Studies Etiology Eugenics Euphoria Eureka Experience Eustress Evaluative Priming Task Event Time Evolution Evolutionary Psychology Exact (or Direct) Replication Excitation Transfer Excitatory Excitatory postsynaptic potential Exemplar Exempt Research Existential therapies Existential Therapy Expectation Fulfillment Theory Expected value Experiential intelligence Experiment Experimental group Experimental Research Experimenter Bias Explicit Attitude Explicit Memory Exposure therapies Exposure Therapy Expressive language External attribution External Locus of Control External Validity Extinction Extraneous variable Extraversion Extravert Extrinsic Motivation Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)

F

Facets Facial Feedback Hypothesis Factor Analysis Facts False-Belief Test False Memories Falsifiability Falsified Data (or Faked Data)Family studies Family Study Family Therapy Farsighted Fear Conditioning Feature Detector Neurons Feature detectors Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects Fee for service Feeling Function Feigned scarcity Fetal alcohol syndrome Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)Fetal stage Fight-or-Flight Response Figure Fitness Fixation Fixed-interval schedule Fixed-ratio schedule Flashbulb memories Flashbulb Memory Flexible Correction Model Flooding Flourish Flow Fluid Intelligence Flynn Effect Foils Foot-in-the-door phenomenon Forebrain Forgetting curve Forgiveness Formal Operational Stage Four-Branch Model Fovea Framing Free Association Frequency Frequency theory Frequency Theory of Hearing Frontal Lobe Frustration Frustration-aggression hypothesis Functional Fixedness Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)Functionalism (or School of Functionalism)Fundamental Attribution Error

I

Iconic Memory Id Identical Elements Theory of Transfer Identical Twins Identifiability Identity achievement Identity diffusion Identity foreclosure Identity moratorium Illusion Illusions Imaginary Audience Immune system Impact Bias Implantation Implemental Phase Implicit Association Test (IAT)Implicit Attitude Implicit Learning Implicit Measures of Attitudes Implicit Memory Implicit Motives Inattentional Blindness Incentive Incidence Incidental Learning Inclusive fitness Incongruence Independent Self Independent Variable Individual Differences Individual psychology Individualism Individuation Inductive reasoning Infancy Inferential statistics Inferiority complex Information Processor Informational Influence Informational social influence Informed Consent Infradian rhythms Ingroup Inhibitory Inhibitory postsynaptic potential Innate abilities Insanity Insight Insight therapies Insomnia Instinctive drift Instincts Institutional Review Board (IRB)Instrumental Conditioning Insulin Integrative approach Integrative Psychology Intelligence Intelligence quotient (IQ)Intentional Intentional Learning Intentionality Interdependent Self Interference Interference theory Intermittent reinforcement Internal attribution Internal Locus of Control Internal Validity Interneuron Interpersonal attraction Interpersonal Functions of Emotion Interpersonal Intelligence Interpretation Intersexual Selection Interval schedule Intimacy Intrapersonal Functions of Emotion Intrapersonal Intelligence Intrasexual Competition Intrinsic Motivation Introspection Introvert Intuitive Inverted U Hypothesis Ions IQ Iris Irreversibility

J

James-Lange theory James-Lange Theory of Emotion Jet Lag Job Analysis Joint Attention Just world hypothesis Justice Justification of effort

K

Kin Selection Kinesthesis Knocked Out

M

Ma Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)Maintenance Rehearsal Major depressive disorder Major Depressive Disorder (Clinical Depression)Major depressive episode Major Life Stressors Maladaptive Managed care Mandala Manifest Content Massed practice Matching hypothesis Maturation Maximum Observed Score Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)McGurk Effect Mean Means Measured Variables Measures of central tendency Medial Temporal Lobes Median Medical model Meditation Medulla Melatonin Memory Memory Stages Memory Traces Menarche Menopause Mental age Mental hospitals Mental Retardation Mental set Mere exposure effect Mere-Exposure Effects Meta-Analysis Metacognition Metalinguistic awareness Method of loci Methodologies Midbrain Middle Adulthood Midlife crisis Mimicry Mind–Body Connection Mindfulness Minimal Risk Research Minimum Observed Score Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)Mirror Neurons Misattribution of Arousal Misinformation Effect Mixed and Trait Models Mnemonics Mock Witnesses Mode Molecular Genetics Monamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)Monochronic (M-time)Monocular cues Monocular Depth Cues Monogenic traits Mood Mood-Congruent Memory Mood disorders Mood (or Affective) Disorders Moon Illusion Moral reasoning Morality Morpheme Morphine Motivated forgetting Motivated Skepticism Motivation Motivation Theory Motive Motor Cortex Motor development Motor Neuron (or Efferent Neuron)Mueller-Lyer Illusion Multiple Regression Multiple Response Multiply Determined Mutations Myelin Sheath Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Mystery

N

Name calling Narcissistic personality disorder Narcolepsy Narcotics Narrative method Natural Improvement Natural Selection Naturalistic Observations Nature Approach to Language Nearsighted Need for Closure Need to Belong Negative correlation Negative Linear Relationship Negative punishment Negative Reinforcement Negative State Relief Model Negative symptoms Negatively skewed distribution NEO Personality Inventory Nerves Nervous System Neural Correlates of Consciousness (NCC)Neurogenesis Neuroimaging Neuron Neurons Neurophilosophy Neuroplasticity Neurosis Neuroticism Neurotransmitters Nicotine No Relationship Nocturnal emissions Node of Ranvier Non-Rapid Eye Movement (non-REM) Sleep Nonassociative Learning Nonconscious Nonlinear Relationship Nonshared Environment Nonspecific Treatment Effects Nonverbal Communication Norepinephrine Normal Distribution Normal Distribution (or Bell Curve)Normative Influence Normative social influence Norms Nucleotides Nuremberg Code

P

Pace of Life Pancreas Panic attack Panic Disorder Papillae Paradigm Paranoid type Parasympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic Nervous System or Parasympathetic Division Parathyroid Gland Parental investment Parenting Styles Parietal Lobe Partial reinforcement effect Passionate love Pavlovian Conditioning Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r)Peg word method Penis envy People’s (Folk) Explanations of Behavior Percentile score Perception Perception of Social Support Perceptual Constancy Perceptual Learning Perceptual set Perceptual speed Performance Assessment Periodic Limb Movement Disorder Peripheral nervous system Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)Permissive Parents Persecutory delusion Person-centered theory Person-Centred Therapy (or Client-Centred Therapy)Person’ Mental Age Person perception Person-Situation Debate Persona Personal Personal Distress Personal Selection Personal Unconscious Personality Personality Disorder Personality disorders Personality Traits Phenomenal Phenotype Phi Phenomenon Phobia Phoneme Phonemic encoding Photo Spreads Photoreceptor Physical dependence Physiological Adaptations Pineal Gland Pinna Pitch Pituitary Pituitary Gland Place theory Place Theory of Hearing Placebo effect Placebo Effects Placenta Planning Fallacy Plasticity Pleasure principle Pluralistic Ignorance Polychronic (P-time)Polygenic traits Polygraph or lie detector Polygyny Pons Population Positive Affective States Positive correlation Positive Linear Relationship Positive Psychology Positive punishment Positive Reinforcement Positive symptoms Positively skewed distribution Positron emission tomography (PET)Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)Posthypnotic amnesia Postsynaptic neuron Postsynaptic potential Pre-Screening Preconscious Prediction Error Prejudice Prenatal period Preoperational Stage Preoptic Area Preparedness Prepotency of Elements Pressure Presynaptic neuron Prevalence Prevention Primacy Effect Primary Appraisal Primary auditory cortex Primary Mental Abilities Primary motor cortex Primary Prevention Primary process thinking Primary punisher Primary reinforcer Primary Sex Characteristics Primary somatosensory cortex Primary visual cortex Prime Primed Priming Principle of closure Principle of continuity Principle of parsimony Principle of proximity Principle of similarity Principle of simplicity Prison study Privacy Pro-Social Proactive Interference Problem-Focused Coping Problem Restructuring Problem solving Procedural Memory Progesterone Prognosis Progress Projection Projective Hypothesis Projective personality tests Projective test Promotion Proprioception Prosocial Behavior Prosocial Personality Orientation Protocol Prototype Proximity Psychiatric Service Dogs Psychoactive Drug Psychoactive drugs Psychoanalysis Psychodynamic model Psychodynamic Psychology Psychodynamic theories Psychodynamic Therapy (Psychoanalysis)Psychological Adaptations Psychological Approach to Reducing Disorders Psychological Assessment Psychological dependence Psychological Disorder Psychological Essentialism Psychological test Psychologist-Practitioners Psychology Psychometric approach Psychoneuroimmunology Psychophysics Psychosis Psychosomatic Medicine Psychosurgery Psychotherapy Puberty Pubescence Punisher Punishment Pupil Pure light

Q

Quantitative Genetics Quantitative Law of Effect

R

Radical Behaviourism Random assignment Random Assignment to Conditions Range Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep Ratio schedule Rational-emotive therapy Rationalization Reaction formation Reaction range Reaction time Reality principle Reappraisal Recall Recall Memory Test Recency Effect Receptive language Reciprocal Altruism Reciprocal determinism Reciprocity Reciprocity norm Recoding Recognition Recognition Memory Test Reductionist Reference Group Effect Reflex Refractory Period Regression Regression toward the mean Rehearsal Reinforcement Reinforcement schedule Reinforcer Reinforcer Devaluation Effect Rejecting-Neglecting Parents Relearning Reliability Reliable REM rebound effect REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder Renewal Effect Replicability Replicate Replication Representative sample Representativeness Heuristic Repressed Repression Reproductive advantage Research Confederate Research Design Research Hypothesis Research Participant Research Psychologists Resilience Resistance Respect for Persons Response Response Bias Response by Analogy Response tendency Resting Potential Resting state Restless Legs Syndrome Retention Reticular Formation Retina Retinal disparity Retrieval Retrieval cues Retroactive Interference Retrograde Amnesia Reuptake Reversibility Reversible figure Reward-Punishment Drive Reward Value Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA)Risk Factors Risky shift Rituals Rods Rorschach test

S

Saccades Safety Ratio Sample Sample Size Sampling bias Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Satiation Scalloped response pattern Scatter Plot Schema Schemas (also known as Schematas)Schizoid personality disorder Schizophrenia School of Functionalism Scientific Management Scientific Method Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)Secondary Appraisal Secondary process thinking Secondary punisher Secondary reinforcer Secondary Sex Characteristics Secure Attachment Style Secure Base Sedatives Selective Attention Selective Forgetting Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)Self Self-actualization Self-Actualize Self-Categorization Theory Self-Concept Self-Construal Self-Control Self-effacing bias Self-Efficacy Self-Enhancement Bias Self-Help Group Self-help groups Self-Regulation Self-Report Assessment Self-report data Self-report inventory Self-serving bias Semantic encoding Semantic Memory Semantic slanting Semicircular canals Sensation Sense of Coherence Sensing Function Sensitivity Sensitization Sensorimotor Stage Sensory Adaptation Sensory Deprivation Sensory Interaction Sensory Memory Sensory Neuron (or Afferent Neuron)Separation anxiety Serial Position Curve Serotonin Set (or Attitude)Set Point Sex Sexual Harassment Sexual Orientation Sexual script Sexual Selection Shadow Shadowing Shaping Shared Environment Short-term memory Short-term Memory (STM)Sibling Contrast Effect Signal Detection Analysis Signal detection theory Silent Language Similarity Simplicity Simulation Single-blind Single-Blind Experiment Situation Model Situational Identity Six Senses Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)Skinner Box Sleep Apnea Sleep Spindles Sleep Terrors Sleeper Effect Slow Wave Sleep Smooth muscles Social and Cultural Functions of Emotion Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)Social Approach to Reducing Disorders Social Attribution Social Brain Hypothesis Social Clock Social clocks Social Cognition Social Comparison Social Component Social Constructivist Social-Cultural Psychology Social desirability bias Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)Social exchange theory Social facilitation Social Identity Social Identity Theory Social Influence Social Integration Social Learning Theory Social loafing Social Models Social Networks Social Norms Social Phobia Social Psychology Social Referencing Social responsibility norm Social roles Social schemas Social skills training Social Support Social Time Social trap Sociocultural Theory Socioeconomic Sociopolitical Soma Somatic nervous system Somatic Nervous System (SNS)Somatization disorder Somatoform disorders Somatosensory Cortex Somnambulism (Sleepwalking)Sound waves Source amnesia Source Monitoring Spacing Effect Specific Intelligence(s)Specific phobia Spinal Cord Spinal reflexes Split-brain surgery Spontaneous Recovery Spreading Activation Spurious Relationship Stable attribution Stage Stage Theory of Cognitive Development Standard deviation Standard Deviation (s)Standard Scale Standardization Standardization sample Standardized tests Stanford-Binet Test State-Dependent Learning States Statistical Conclusion Validity Statistical Significance Statistics Stereotype Content Model Stereotype Threat Stereotypes Stereotyping Stigma Stigmatized Groups Stimulant Stimulants Stimulus Stimulus Control Stimulus discrimination Stimulus generalization Storage Story Strange Situation Stress Stress Coping Stress-Related Growth Stressors Structural encoding Structuralism Subject Subject bias Subjective utility Subjective well-being Sublimation Subliminal Perception Subliminal Stimuli Substance abuse Subtle Biases Superego Suprachiasmatic nucleus Surface Structure of the Idea Survey Surveys Survival advantage Symbol Symbolic thought Sympathetic Division or Sympathetic Nervous System Sympathetic nervous system Synapse Synapses Synaptic cleft Synaptic vesicles Synchrony Synesthesia Syntax System 1 System 2 Systematic densensitization Systematic Desensitization

T

Tardive Dyskinesia Taste Aversion Conditioning (Learning)Taste Buds Telegraphic speech Temperament Temporal Lobe Temporal Perspective Temporally Graded Retrograde Amnesia Tend-and-Befriend Response Teratogen Teratogens Terminal buttons Tertiary Prevention Test-retest reliability Testes Testosterone Thalamus The Big Five (Five-Factor Model)Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Theory Theory of Intelligence (Three Part or Triarchic)Theory of Mind Theory of Natural Selection Therapeutic Alliance Therapeutic window Theta waves Thinking Function Third Force Threat-Simulation Theory Three Stages of Moral Thinking Thriving Thyroid Gland Timbre Tinnitus Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon Token economy Tolerance Toxic Inhalants Traits Traits of Good Theories Trance States Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (TTSC)Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)Transduction Transfer-Appropriate Processing Transference Transformation Trial and error Triarchic theory of intelligence Trichromatic Colour Theory Trichromatic theory Tricyclic Antidepressants Tricyclics Twin Studies Two-factor theory Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Tympanic Membrane (or Eardrum)Type A Behavior Type A personality Type B Behavior Type B personality Types of Memory Typicality

W

Wavelength Weber’s Law Wechsler Adult intelligence Scale (WAIS)Wernicke’s Area Wish Fulfilment Withdrawal Withdrawal symptoms Womb envy Word Association Test Working memory

Z

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Z

Terms total # 1582

Permanent link Psychology - Modification date 2021-12-05 - Creation date 2021-06-15